The following text addresses the central elements in the British system of government. Leaving out the position of the prime minister and the monarchy, this text deals with Britain's two basic constitutional principles of rule of law and the sovereignty of parliament. This particular British form of Parliamentarianism in which powers cross is often referred to as the "Westminster model". Another section summarizes the central characteristics of this model and addresses the most common criticisms.

The political system in Great Britain - often falsely referred to as England - features many unique aspects. The problems begin with the territorial structure of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" as it is known officially. The following illustration provides an overview of this structure:

The Queen of England is the head of state of the United Kingdom. Citizens share British nationality. Several other nationalities are also encompassed by this British nationality: English, Welsh, Scottish, Irish, Northern Irish (Ulster).

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Overview:

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the only European state without a formally written constitution. Of course, this does not mean that a constitution does not exist or that there are no points of reference. The British constitution is a mixture of legal provisions, conventions and a recognized acceptance of the constitutional principles (...).

The essence of the British constitution is based on two basic principles: The rule of law, which binds the state the law, and the sovereignty of parliament. The rule of law protects citizens from the state and forces parliament to put into law the powers it transfers to the government. Laws can be rejected, repealed or passed by a simple majority. Since there is no written constitution, there is no need for special majorities to enact changes to the constitution. "Constitutional reality" as reflected in the legislative process is flexible and can be changed quickly.

The English legal system simplifies the flexible way in which the British constitution develops. It is based on common law. The main feature of common law is its foundation on case law, that is, precedents set by previous cases which can be used to settle new disputes and developed further according to new legislation. Legal decisions are always based on firm cases and not a general rule. A code of law like the one in Germany does not exist. This means that a great deal of flexibility exists in interpreting the law and, with it, the constitution, insofar as it is based on law. (...).

Thanks to the legal and constitutional traditions in Great Britain the modification of laws and institutions to meet new challenges has been possible without having to make major external changes. The widespread idea that Great Britain is a nation holding on tight to its historical traditions is based on this outer impression of formal continuity. The role of the monarch and the role of parliament, to name but two, have changed dramatically over the past four centuries despite this continuity.

In addition to the rule of law, sovereignty of parliament forms the second pillar of the British constitution. While Parliament is responsible for passing laws and is solely responsible for controlling legislation, it is not bound to a written constitution and therefore cannot be overruled. It is Parliament and not the people that is responsible for the constitution. A constitutional court with the power to revise decisions of Parliament does not exist and is, indeed, inconceivable given the lack of a written constitution.

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The constitutions of democratic nations usually state that all state power is derived from the people, that is, that the people are sovereign. How can this unique position of Britain be explained and what are the practical implications for today? Parliamentary sovereignty was achieved in 1688/89 during the Glorious Revolution. It marked the end of the conflict between the Ruling Catholic Stuarts and the protestant parliament. Parliament agreed to the deposition of the Stuarts and the crowning of the protestant William III of Orange and Mary, but not without demanding a whole raft of changes to the constitution in return. The Bill of Rights (1689) meant parliamentary independence, an end to absolutist rule in Great Britain and the foundation of the constitutional monarchy. The Bill of Rights transferred liberties to parliament (free elections, freedom of speech and tax laws).

During the 19th and 20th centuries the Liberal Party and its predecessors, the Whigs, managed to achieve general, equal, free and secret elections supported by demands from several groups including the growing middle classes, the labour movement and the women's liberation  movement (the Suffragettes). As far as parliament's constitutional position was concerned, however, nothing changed. British citizens remained subjects to the Crown and were never given the power of the state. Unlike the rest of continental Europe, there were no social or civil revolutions; there was also no coup, which might have overthrown the monarch or at least attempted to establish the sovereignty of the people in a written constitution (...).

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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional hereditary monarchy. The head of state is the reigning monarch. Proposed by the Prime Minister or members of the government, the King or Queen is responsible for appointing Bishops to the Church of England, the Chief Justice and the highest-ranking members of the armed forces, who all swear allegiance to the Crown. The monarch performs a representative, ceremonial and integrating role. The present Queen, Elizabeth II from the Hanover Windsor Mountbatten family, has been on the Throne since 1952 and (and the Royal Family) represents Great Britain at home and abroad, as well as being head of the Anglican Church. The Queen carries out and legitimizes acts of state such as the annual opening of Parliament during which the Queen reads out a speech drawn up by the Prime Minister, which marks out the government's intended legislative program for the coming Parliament (Queen's Speech). The monarch's neutral position makes him/her a generally accepted figure of national integration even in times of war and crisis.

The most important political role in the British democratic system is reserved for the Prime Minister. British prime ministers are powerful. This is because they have great power of patronage and appoint, for instance, around 100 senior and junior ministerial posts to members of the ruling party across government, as well as appointing people to carry out public office in areas such as health, tourism and even the BBC. The Prime Minster's power is based on the parliamentary loyalty of his/her party, of which he/she is the leader, and the fact that the British Prime Minister is not tied to the needs of a coalition.

Modern-day prime ministers are increasingly turning to the people directly for approval of government policy using the media. Government influence on the way in which the news is reported and the professional control of politicians' self-image in public has become just as important for the government as its actual job of government. Traditionally, 'the management' of public opinion has been implemented using a system of secrecy and selective and tactical releasing of information. Lobby journalism is an excellent tool for the latter of these. The government decides on the membership of the exclusive "club" of around 150 journalists, who, on a daily basis, are given privileged access to "secret information" from sources close to the government, but are not permitted to reveal this source. By preventing other members of the government form making political statements without his express permission and empowering his close PR representatives (spin doctors) to take the political initiative wherever possible to ensure the issues favored by the government are the ones making the headlines, Tony Blair has managed to perfect the art of influencing the way in which government policies are presented in the news. With focus on the media and promoting a leadership style reminiscent of the American president, Tony Blair has given both parliament and the cabinet a back seat role.

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Government models itself on three traditional principles:

The first principle of a dominant role for the Prime Minister, includes the power to determine the direction policy will take (...). The Prime Minister's special status also affects the decision-making process across government. While he may spread decision-making ad-hoc across his cabinet, it is the Prime Minister or those close to him that control it. Compared with political systems in other courtiers, decision making is conducted largely away from the public gaze. Another striking feature of the British system is the ability of the Prime Minister to make decisions that are limited neither by a coalition party, a written constitution, a constitutional court, the head of state nor, indeed, Parliament. In actual fact, it is for this reason that the British system of government is also referred to as prime ministerial government or more controversially as an elective dictatorship. Of course, the degree to which individual prime ministers take advantage of these far-reaching powers depends largely on their own personality. Margaret Thatcher was well known for her uncompromising style of leadership, her dominance over the cabinet and her unswerving adherence to her ideological principles between 1979 and 1990. Tony Blair also makes sure that his cabinet is under control, but so far his policies have been far less ideological than those of Margaret Thatcher (...).

[Taken and translated from: Roland Sturm: Regierung und Verwaltung; in: Informationen zur Politischen Bildung 262, "Großbritannien", Bonn BpB 1999]

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