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As far as research into the causes of war on an individual level is concerned, aggression theories play a central role. Just like the term "violence" (go to section on violence), when the apparently unequivocal term of "aggression" is subjected to close scrutiny it turns out to have hidden weaknesses. The following text passage attempts to provide an initial indication of the difficulties with the
term.
More "narrow definitions of aggression point to targeted (...)
attempts to damage, impede and cause pain (for example hurting other people, killing, threatening, insulting, belittling) (...). In everyday life, the term aggression is often used
as in the sense to judge. To tell someone that he's being aggressive is usually meant as a accusation and not just as an observation. A number of surveys have shown that the
behavior of others is far more likely to be called 'aggressive' than one's own actions and that people don't like to use the term aggression when they regard the pain that they have caused to other people as legitimate ('legitimate' measures to teach others a lesson etc.).
In political and military terms, too, aggression is often used to accuse the other side of carrying out the first unjustified action, while reciprocal violence - although it also intended to cause targeted killing and destruction - is referred to as defense rather than aggression (...). It is well known that that each side accuses the other of 'aggression' and sees itself in a defensive role. The term 'violence' is also used
in a bias and judgmental way (...).
Violence, too,
like aggression is usually understood in the sense of targeted damage and impeding others. This means, then, that both
of these terms are closely connected. However: When we talk about violence, we are usually referring to serious bodily aggression, and not for example about insults and
mean looks. To this end, violence is a sub-condition of aggression."
[Taken from: Hans-Peter Nolting, Aggression ist nicht gleich Aggression. Ein Überblick aus psychologischer Sicht; in: Der Bürger im Staat 43, 2/1993, p. 91-92]
How can aggressive behavior be explained?
Psychology makes a distinction between three explanations: drive theory, frustration theory and learning theory. Another page has been created as part of this online educational series
and has been designed to present and look into the core aspects of these three approaches and
consider how
aggression can be avoided [... to the explanations page].
These explanations refer to individual aggression. A distinction has to be made between
individual aggression and aggression as part of a collective - this is a core aspect for research into the causes of war:
Differences between individual and collective aggression
"Individual aggression and
taking part in collective aggression are not comparable in psychological terms. This is because the individual is subjected to completely different situation-related influences, that is, the stimulating behavior of others. These influences conspire to make individuals do things that they
would probably never do of their own accord. The differences between individual and collective aggression are detailed in the table below. Not all of the characteristics of collective aggression will always be present at the same time. Command structures, for example, might be missing in the case of a 'spontaneous' uprising on the streets."
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Individual aggression |
Collective aggression |
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An individual as an aggressor |
Several people cooperating together |
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Mostly targeted at another individual |
Mostly targeted against a collective, sometimes against an individual |
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The aggressor and the victim usually know each other |
The aggressor and the victim are usually unknown to each other and often remain anonymous |
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Aggression is self-motivated (active or reactive) |
For most of those involved, aggression is 'motivated by others' (order, example, reward etc.) |
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Often inhibition because of fear of punishment and personal attitude |
Inhibitions often reduced because of anonymity, responsibility spread, group ideology, propaganda |
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Independent decision, carrying out the 'entire action' |
Decisions often made over a command structure, divided or spread responsibility, division of labor |
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Learning in 'normal' socialization |
Systematic training is often present for organized collectives |
[Taken from: Hans-Peter Nolting, Aggression ist nicht gleich Aggression. Ein Überblick aus psychologischer Sicht; in: Der Bürger im Staat 43, 2/1993, p. 94]
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